Workplace Safety Safety And Safety - 918 Words

Organizational Safety Program Safety in the workplace has become a major focus on many organizations due to many accidents and deaths. When employees enter their place of work they expect to work in a safe environment in which they can work with our anything to worry about. As it is known that some workplaces are safer than others. Workplace safety is a priority in for most workplaces that is why employers care about employee’s safety. Workplace safety is a kind of management responsibility in places of employment that includes health and safety of workers. In order to provide workers with safety and health, managers focus on safety that can include such elements as: management leadership and obligation; worker involving accountability; ensuring the work is carried out safely and effectively; different safety plans, programs and policies, processes, procedures, and practices; safety inspections for workplace hazards; safety goals, objectives and program audits; safety tracking and metrics; identification of hazards and control; safety education, training and communications. Talking about workplace safety, it is necessary to mention health and safety hazards. According to definition of Rajagopal J., â€Å"a ‘hazard’ is something that in itself may cause harm or injury.† (Rajagopal, 2009).Workplace hazards include moving parts of machinery, flammable or toxic substances and lifting heavy things. Also hazards can be included in slippery floors, electric energy, working at heightsShow MoreRelatedHealth And Safety Of The Workplace902 Words   |  4 PagesHealth and safety in the workplace are both important topics that need to be incorporated in the workplace environment so that all parties involved in a company are protected and secure. There are many objectives that have been discussed in this class that are essential to an employee’s general health and overall safety while performing job tasks and responsibilities. The following objectives have been chosen from one particular week of discussion, and they will be discussed in more detail. TheseRead MoreWorkplace and Patient Safety1387 Words   |  6 PagesHospital Workplace and Patient safety: The first interventions for positive outcome Outline of the Article I. Backgound II. Objective III. Errors due to fatigue of nursing personnel IV. Healthcare Associated Infections V. Personal Protective equipments VI. Hand Hygiene VII. Transitions of care and Patient Handoffs VIII. Conclusion Read MoreHealth And Safety At The Workplace995 Words   |  4 PagesHealth and Safety in the Workplace The health and safety in the workplace for workers has created a continual concern in the United States since the country was discovered. Although, a healthy and safe work environment can be described as a work area free of health risks and absent unsafe conditions. Indeed, the definition encompasses additional legal, moral, ethical issues. Particularly, reporting safety issues rather than choosing to ignore them, refusing to fall under peer pressure or fear ofRead MoreWorkplace Safety Essay2673 Words   |  11 PagesWorkplace Safety BUS642: Business Research Method Tools Instructor: Janice Johnson April 16, 2012 â€Æ' In order for a workplace to be a productive and welcoming environment, safety must be a priority. The overall plan and execution of safety measures ensure that the staff or workers will be well-prepared and have peace of mind on a daily basis. The best way to handle any bad situation is to properly evaluate the steps and think about scenarios ahead of time. In order to improve safety in a workRead MoreWorkplace Safety Essay5423 Words   |  22 PagesBackground 1 1.2 Workplace Safety Defined 1 2.0 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 2 2.1 Workplace Injury Statistics 2 2.2 Types of Safety Training 6 2.3 Negative Association with Training 10 2.4 Positive Association with Training 12 3.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 14 3.1Why safety training in a workplace is a necessity? 14 Read MoreSafety In The Workplace Essay1255 Words   |  6 Pagesrequires fortitude and tolerance to be prolific. Human Resource Managers need to be aware of the risks that may endanger employee safety and well-being, whether it is a home-country national strategy or a host-country national strategy. You must weigh the risk and reward daily. You will need to create updated policies as well as training to alleviate workplace violence and safety hazards alike. (Dias, 2011) There are many issues that can arise at a moments notice and your job is to prepare for any issueRead MoreProposal to improve Employee Safety in the Work place1644 Words   |  7 PagesProposal to improve Employee Safety in the Work place Mr. Dunnah the purpose of this memo is to inform you that the Research into improving Workplace Safety is now finish and ready for your review. I have look at the statistics on work place violence over the past three years, 2011 through 2013. As I stated in my earlier memo I feel, that this is a very important need for the employees, management, and the business. Millions of workers face violence in the workplace every year and it is the secondRead MoreHealth And Safety At The Workplace1959 Words   |  8 PagesHealth and safety in the workplace Workplace safety is a major issue faced by nurses in healthcare settings. It is said that, hospitals are hazardous workplaces; unsafe workplaces are dangerous for the patients too. Today, many nurses are suffering hospital violence, heavy workloads causing serious injuries, contracting diseases caused by exposures to certain diseases, antineoplastics, and certain health care toxins, that workers bring home to their families. This in turn leads to acute staff shortagesRead MoreEssay on The Development Stage in Cornella Brothers Inc608 Words   |  3 Pagesinformation. The following will discuss what happens in the development stage at Cornella Brothers Inc. when developing a safety meeting. Authoring Content The person who authors the content for safety classes at Cornella Brothers is the Safety Officer. The person who is currently in this position has been the safety officer for about 14 years. Outside of his experience in teaching safety classes, he does not possess credentials in instructional design or teaching for that matter. He is purely a subjectRead MoreBenefits of OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration)1091 Words   |  5 PagesThe Benefits of OSHA Work place safety is not something to be scoffed about. Although many employers and employees often overlook this pre-caution, the government has created a whole agency, OSHA (occupational safety and health administration) to address work place related injuries and deaths. For many years OSHA has implemented training programs for the employees and workers of companies in the industry of construction and general hard labor. Not all working sites were created equal. Although the

The Non Banking Financial Sector And Banks Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1105 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Of late there has been a lot of activity in the non-banking financial sector India got its first Micro Finance Institution (MFI) listed on the bourses through SKS Microfinance (SKS) and what has followed subsequently does not seem to augur well for the MFI space in particular and NBFCs in general. SKSs CEO S. Gurumani was fired a month after the IPO of SKS and then there was news of SKS and other MFIs causing suicides in Andhra Pradesh due to exorbitant interest rates and ruthless collection practices. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Non Banking Financial Sector And Banks Finance Essay" essay for you Create order This has led to AP government announcing ordnance for change in collection cycle from weekly to monthly among other requirements. Further the RBI has set up the Malegam Committee to put regulations on the sector under pressure from the Finance Ministry. Markets are discounting the MFI space for now due to which IPOs lined up have been stalled for the time-being. The whole NBFC sector is wary because NBFCs are being considered in the same breath as MFIs and the regulations on MFIs might significantly impact other segments of NBFCs too which otherwise seem to be working well under RBI guidelines. NBFCs are different from banks and not synonymous with MFIs which operate under models like self-help groups or NGOs or Section 25 companies also. So what are NBFCs? NBFCs are companies which are in the business of financing. Right from the bike store near you to the malls you go to large equipment and vehicle dealers, NBFCs play the role of facilitating business either by financing the customer or the vendor or the business itself. Such companies may or may not collect money from the public but not demand deposits. Legally, Section 45-I (f) of Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 defines NBFC as (i) a financial institution which is a company; (ii) a non-banking institution which is a company and which has as its principal business the receiving of deposits, under any scheme or arrangement or in any other manner, or leading in any manner; (iii) such other non-banking institution or class of such institutions, as the Bank may, with the previous approval of the Central Government and by notification in the Official Gazette, specify. Based on these and activities they have been divided into four types: equipment leasing company; hire-pu rchase company; loan company and investment company. W.e.f. December 6, 2006 are reclassified as Asset Finance Company (AFC), Investment Company (IC) and Loan Company (LC). The above type of companies may be further classified into those accepting deposits or those not accepting deposits. Besides the above class of NBFCs the Residuary Non-Banking Companies are also registered as NBFC with the Bank. Banking regulation Like other fund agents in the Indian financial system, the NBFCs are also governed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). NBFCs dont completely resemble banks due to the fact that they cannot accept demand deposits and they are not a part of payment and settlement system and as such cannot issue cheques to its customers. But NBFCs also dont have to maintain cash reserve ratio (CRR) and statutory liquid ratio (SLR). Priority sector lending norm of 40% (of total advances) is also not applicable for them. As per RBI guidelines, NBFCs require a minimum Net Owned Fund (NOF) of Rs. 2 crore. NBFCs accepting public deposits (NBFCs-D) are subject to RBI regulations. But of late due to rise of NBFC-ND-SI (non deposit taking NBFCs which are systemically important i.e. NOF= Rs. 100 Crores) have been subject to CRAR and exposure norms prescribed by the Reserve Bank The existing policy since 2001 has been that an NBFC with a good track record for conversion into a bank, if : It is not p romoted by a Large Industrial or Business House Satisfies the prescribed minimum capital requirements Has a AAA rating or its equivalent, credit rating in the last year Capital Adequacy of not less than 12% and Net Non Performing Assets (NPA) ratio of not more than 5% NBFCs in the running for banking licences A recent discussion paper by RBI, dwelt on the issue of giving banking licences to corporate houses and NBFCs. Fresh licences to NBFCs would help in increasing the reach of the financial system as a whole to the interiors of India besides fostering greater competition and reduction in costs and improvement in quality. It is said that players like LIC Housing Finance, Reliance Capital, Shriram Group, AB Nuvo, Mahindra Finance, and Religare Enterprise are looking to obtain banking licences this time around. RBI has suggested to the following two options of which the latter is gaining favour in the industry: Proposal 1: Permitting standalone (i.e. those not promoted by Industrial/ Business Houses) NBFCs (including those regulated by SEBI, IRDA NHB) to promote banks Proposal 2: Permitting conversion of NBFCs into banks provided they should not be directly/indirectly engaged in real estate activity. Banking licence to NBFCs would help them in the following ways: Acces s to low-cost CASA(current account and savings account) deposits Relaxed capital requirement for CRAR of 10% Relaxation of regulatory compliances for issue of public deposits The problem for NBFCs could be the high startup capital requirement of at least Rs 500 crores to be scaled up to Rs 1000 crore in five years time putting high pressure on the Balance Sheets of NBFCs. Problems to NBFC turned banks -failures and challenges The challenges for the NBFCs wanting to convert into banks can be rated as follows: Lesser free play due to greater RBI restrictions as is prevalent on banks 40% priority sector lending requirement would prove an uphill task and might put pressure on asset quality itself Lending restrictions to the real estate sector High expenses on skills and technology Investment in infrastructure for ATMs, credit cards and internet banking The asset-mix is more long term oriented and hence asset-liability mismatch may arise Indian banking space was opened up in 1994 when 9 players were given banking licenses. Also in 2003, when fresh banking licenses were issued , Yes Bank and Kotak Mahindra Bank . Out of these 11 players on 7 have survived GTB merged with OBC; Times Bank was merged with HDFC Bank; Bank of Punjab with Centurion Bank, which itself has been merged with HDFC Bank. This means a 35% failure rate for new banks. Banking is a multi-functional game whereas non-b anking finance has focussed on a small portfolio of services. It remains to be seen as to what kind of business model an eligible NBFC would take to be successful as a bank. As such giving a licence to an NBFC which eventually goes on to fail would not only create systemic problems besides reducing the faith of the customers in the banking system.

Commentary on Passge (Page 124-125) of Things Fall Apart...

In this passage of Things Fall Apart, by Chinua Achebe, the protagonist and main characters of the novel, Okonkwo, has just been sent into exile away from his land of Umuofia , Nigeria . The crime he has committed to receive such a punishment is the sin of murder. While he is attending a funeral for a man named, Ogbuefi Ezeudu, Okonkwo’s gun accidentally explodes and kills Ezeudu’s sixteen-year-old son. Killing a clansman is a crime against their earth goddess, thus, Okonkwo and his family are sent into exile, being forced to go back to his motherland of Mbanta. The men of the family who have experienced the loss in this accidental death burn Okonkwo’s houses and kill his animals to cleanse the village of his sin of murder. They do this to†¦show more content†¦But he allows this fear to take control, and becomes inflexible and it eventually drives him to his final downfall. A significant character shown in this passage is Obierika. Though a minor character, Okonkwo’s close friend demonstrates importance because of his many doubts and questions of some of the tribe’s traditional system, this shows a possibility of Obierika being a spokesperson for Achebe. He is a foil to Okonkwo, because Okonkwo has the desire for the most part to embrace the traditions and view of masculinity, while Obierika was a man who thought about things and sometimes questioned the ways of the clan. Another opposite decision he makes compared to Okonkwo is in the killing of Ikemefuna, in which he refuses to accompany them. He is more understanding towards women, thoughtful, and has no love for unnecessary violence. Why should a man suffer so grievously for an offense he had committed inadvertently? But although he thought for a long time he found no answer. He worries because Okonkwo is a close friend of his, and he has a fit skepticism of the traditional ways and is more adaptable to change then Okonkwo, thus, they almost balance each other out, but Okonkwo repeatedly shows resistance towards Obierika’s reasoning. When questioning Okonkwo’s exile he is reminded of a tragedy of his own. He remembered his wife’s children, whom he had thrown

Essay on Life of Eudora Welty - 1060 Words

Eudora Welty was born in 1909, in Jackson, Mississippi, grew up in a prosperous home with her two younger brothers. Her parent was an Ohio-born insurance man and a strong-minded West Virginian schoolteacher, who settled in Jackson in 1904 after their marriage. Eudora’s school life began attending a white-only school. As born and brought up under strict supervision and influence, at the age of sixteen she somehow convinced her parents to attend college far enough from home, to Columbus, Mississippi and then to Madison, Wisconsin. After graduation in 1930, she moved to New York to attend Columbia Business School. While living in New York, Harlem Jazz theatre occupied her more than her class did. She returned to Jackson in 1931 following her†¦show more content†¦Welty hasn’t published any new volumes of short stories since â€Å"The Bride of Innisfallen† in 1955 and it renewed her interest in fiction. In the early 1970’s to 80’s she wrote many novels and short stories. Her most complex stories in â€Å"The Golden Apples† won critical acclaim, and she received a number of prizes and awards throughout the following decade. She won the William Dean Howell’s Medal of Academy of Arts. Welty also won the letters for her novel â€Å"The Ponder Heart†. In the 1970’s she published two novels, â€Å"Losing Battles† and â€Å"The Optimist’s Daughter†, which was much more critically successful and won a Pulitzer Prize. Her autobiographical book â€Å"One Writer’s Beginnings† is a remarkably useful account of her origins and development as a writer. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Salahuddin 3 For her literary work Eudora Welty has received almost every award a nation can give. She received Freedom Medal of Honor twice from President Jimmy Carter and President Ronald Ragen. Other awards include the Gold Medal for the Novel from the National Institute of Arts and Letters, the Bobst Award in Arts and Letters, eight Henry Memorial Prizes, the Howell’s Medal from the American Academy of Arts and Letters, the American Book Award for Paperback Fiction, The St. Louis Literary Award, the Lillian Smith Award, the Common Wealth Award from the Modern Language Association, the Phi BetaShow MoreRelated Eudora Welty: Her Life And Her Works Essay1210 Words   |  5 Pages Eudora Welty: Her Life and Her Works Eudora Weltys writing style and us of theme and setting aided her in becoming one of the greatest writers of all time. Welty credits her family for her success. quot;Without the love and belief my family gave me, I could not have become a writer to begin withquot; (Welty, IX). Eudora Weltys writings are light- hearted and realistic. Her stories explore common everyday life. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Eudora Welty was born in Jackson, Mississippi, onRead MoreEudora Welty Essays1088 Words   |  5 Pageswas one of the largest social movements in the United States. Eudora Welty was born in 1909, right around the time where womens rights were being debated the most. Welty grew up in Mississippi, a common setting in many of her short stories. She was a smart girl who enjoyed reading and writing. Welty was also an artistic soul who enjoyed painting, photography and drawing. Eudora Welty started her career as a writer early on in her life. After attending college to receive a degree in literature, sheRead MoreEssay about Writings About Mississippi by Eudora Welty1311 Words   |  6 PagesEudora Alice Welty practically spent her whole life living in Mississippi. Mississippi is the setting in a large portion of her short stories and books. Most of her stories take place in Mississippi because she focuses on the manners of people living in a small Mississippi to wn. Writing about the lives of Mississippi folk is one main reason Welty is a known author. Welty’s stories are based upon the way humans interact in social encounters. She focuses on women’s situations and consciousness. AnotherRead MoreEudora Welty s The Optimist s Daughter Essay1551 Words   |  7 PagesEudora Welty as a Feminine Feminist Femininity and feminism do not necessarily go hand in hand, since women who embrace it are typically associated with submissiveness. However, in the case of Eudora Welty, the use of womanlike diction and characteristics complement Welty’s style and highlight her subtle feminism. Her novel, The Optimist’s Daughter, reflect the feminist events of Eudora Welty’s life and of the Feminist Movement in the 1960’s and 1970’s. Breaking down her writing style leads to theRead More Lessons Learned in Eudora Weltys The Little Store Essay770 Words   |  4 PagesLessons Learned in Eudora Weltys â€Å"The Little Store† Eudora Welty in her short story â€Å"The Little Store,† is attempting to portray the simplicity and innocence of her youth prior to her realization that there was a world beyond her own. Welty foreshadows her realization and loss of innocence even before her transition to an adult. Welty reveals her childhood innocence in her description of her trips to the little store. As a child, innocence can be shown by believing everythingRead MoreOne Writers Beginnings Rhetorical Analysis1216 Words   |  5 Pagesrealities. In â€Å"One Writer’s Beginnings,† Eudora Welty details her very sheltered life. Afraid of any dangers that may affect her, Welty’s parents attempted to shield her from the world around her. Welty’s mother made the world around her seem more dangerous. As a byproduct of her sheltered youth, Welty reveals the truth in a palatable manner. She spends considerable effort making the truth non-painful. Every person copes with pain and loss differently. In many ways, Welty hides from the truth or at leastRead MoreEssay about Family as Theater in Eudora Weltys Why I Live at the P.O.898 Words   |  4 PagesFamily as Theater in Eudora Weltys Why I Live at the P.O.      Ã‚  Ã‚   The outspoken narrator of Eudora Weltys Why I Live at the P.O., known to us only as Sister, intends to convince us--the world at large--that her family has turned against her, led on by her sister, itella-Rondo. To escape her family, she explains, she has left home and now lives at the P.O., where she is postmistress. As she delivers her monologue, the narrator reveals more about herself than she intends. We see herRead MoreEudora Welty s A Worn Path1481 Words   |  6 PagesA very famous writer and novelist, Eudora Welty, has written many short stories and novels. Welty’s work is mainly focused with great precision on the regional manners of people inhabiting a small Mississippi town that resembles her own birthplace and the Delta country. Welty was born on April 13, 1909 and was raised by her close-knit and loving parents. In fact, Welty inherited the love of language from her mother. During her lifetime, Welty has earned many awards from her short stori es and novelRead MoreA Worn Path: Struggle For Racial Equality Essay1522 Words   |  7 PagesA Worn Path: Struggle for Racial Equality In A Worn Path, a short story by Eudora Welty, the main character, an old colored woman named Phoenix, slowly but surely makes her way down a worn path through the woods. Throughout her journey, she runs into many obstacles such as a thorny bush and a hunter. She overcomes these obstacles and continues with her travels. She finally reaches her destination, the doctor’s office, where she gets medicine for her sick grandson back home. Many critics haveRead MoreA Worn Path: Struggle for Racial Equality1550 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"A Worn Path†: Struggle for Racial Equality In â€Å"A Worn Path†, a short story by Eudora Welty, the main character, an old colored woman named Phoenix, slowly but surely makes her way down a â€Å"worn path† through the woods. Throughout her journey, she runs into many obstacles such as a thorny bush and a hunter. She overcomes these obstacles and continues with her travels. She finally reaches her destination, the doctor’s office, where she gets medicine for her sick grandson back home. Many critics have

Management Role Free Essays

There are several meanings and interpretations that are engaged in the word management. Also, the roles and work that are associated in this position also defends on the knowledge of that particular person about the term. It can be said that most people view management as the position in which you can get the things done through other people. We will write a custom essay sample on Management Role or any similar topic only for you Order Now Still, there are some views regarding the role of management in an organization that can be considered quite apart from the traditional view of management roles such as to support employees in order to maximize their ability for the betterment of the organization and as well to help employees to be productive members of the community. However, for most employees it can be said that the term management refers to the group of people with the responsibility to make decisions about the organization. The activities of the board as well as program and/or executive directors are also referred to as management. In Joe’s case, he had misconceptions of the responsibility that had been put into his shoulders by the time that he was appointed manager for the Best Made Mfg. Thus, Joe was placed back into his previous position, in the production line after merely 3 weeks.   Joe expected to do the same kind of work, only lighter than before after being placed into a new position. In can be seen in this case that the roles and responsibilities of being a manager is quite different from being in the production line. Being a part of the production line means working side-be-side with the people on the said workplace. It means that you are likely to do what most people do. Thus, being a manager is a totally different scenario. In order to better see the differences, let us look closely to the part and role of the management in the progress and development of the company. In the traditional interpretation, management is referred to as the activities of groups of people in which their main responsibility involves planning, organizing, leading and as well as controlling/coordinating. In order to have a better picture of the role of management, let us look closely at each of the four functions mentioned above. Planning involves the identification of goals, objectives and methods that the company intends to do and achieve. The resources that will be used in the companies operation is also part of planning as well as to identify the responsibilities of personnel’s and the completion date of a certain task. There are many kinds of planning of which strategic, business, project, staffing and as well as advertising and promotions planning are included. Another responsibility of the management is to organize the resources of the company in order to achieve the goals of the company in the most advantageous manner. It may include the organization of new departments, offices, file systems, human resources and as well as the reorganization of the business and others. Another consideration and responsibility that is in the hands of the management is to influence the persons that are part of the company. Leading is an important consideration in order to motivate the employees. Thus, to set the direction that must taken by the individual employees is an important factor in order to maximize the potential of the company. Leading not just involves striving to achieve the goal of the company but to influence the employees to the same thing as well. Controlling/Coordinating is also an important task of the management. It involves the processes, systems and structures of the organization in order to reach the organization’s goals and objectives in the most effective and efficient manner. This may include the monitoring and adjustments of the systems and other structures of the company as well as the collection of feedbacks. The performance management process, financial controls together with the policies and structures are some of the examples. Thus, the task of those in the production line and management involves two different tasks. The main distinction is that those in the production line are guided by the management but does not have the authority to make decisions. This is the job of the management along with all the other responsibilities and task mentioned above. Being part of the management and of the production line are two different tasks that involves different approach. To treat them as having the same function and responsibility will surely cause you some trouble just like Joe’s case. Reference Davidmann, M. (1998). Role of managers under Different Style of Management. Retrieved December 12, 2007 from http://www.solhaam.org/articles/clm2su.html Heathfield, S. (2007). When Management Systems Fail. Retrieved December 12, 2007 from http://humanresources.about.com/od/motivationsuccess/a/manage_systems.htm McNamara, C. (2007). Basics—Definitions (and Misconceptions) About Management. Retrieved December 12, 2007 from http://www.managementhelp.org/mgmnt/defntion.htm How to cite Management Role, Essay examples

Houstons Light Rail System free essay sample

This paper examines the plans to introduce a light rail system in Houston, Texas. This paper is an analysis of the planning and implementation of the proposed light rail system for Houston, TX. The paper details why the community feels that there is a need for this system and some of the factors that contributed to the decision to build it, including the feeling that this system would bring the 2012 Olympics to Houston. The paper also points out the areas increasingly being recognized as a world leader in medical treatment and research and the large number of famous personalities that visit the area as a result. Houstons unparalleled growth over the past two decades has also increased the need for this system and made it even more evident in recent years. The paper concludes by summarizing the many positive affects that this rail system could have on the city and the surrounding areas. We will write a custom essay sample on Houstons Light Rail System or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Houston Light Rail System is a beginning of a solution to one of the oldest and unresolved problems in the city of Houston, traffic. Due to the distance of Houstons surrounding annexes, the rail system can offer a cost efficient commuting network. Only the ones, who have driven in the Houston rush hour traffic, can realize the extent of this problem. Multiple traffic jams are a part of every ones life that live and work in Houston. Everyday, those who travel on the Houston freeways during rush hours can look forward to congested traffic without exception, twice a day. On the weekends, Houstonians are still faced with road construction that usually blocks at least four of the lanes on a six-lane highway. Traveling 10 miles and seeing no road construction on any major Houston highway is very rare. In Houston, it is not unusual to see motorist driving on shoulders or mediums, to escape the traffic.Motorists who do this usually are faced with two dilemmas. One is they often find out the shoulder gets traffic jams just like the freeways, and they usually have a fine to pay.

BIO OUTLINE Essay Research Paper BIOLOGY 220 free essay sample

BIO OUTLINE Essay, Research Paper BIOLOGY 220 OUTLINE SECTION II Text: Essential Cell Biology I. Opening Remarks ( Chapter 3 ) A. Life creates order out of upset through a ceaseless series of chemical reactions B. This is Metabolism and the ability to Metabolize C. Most of the chemical reactions required by the cell would non happen at physiological conditions D. Control of these reactions is achieved by specialised protein, ENZYMES. II. Basic Principles of Energy A. Energy # 8211 ; Basicss Principles 1. Define Energy # 8211 ; ability to make work 2. Define Work # 8211 ; the ability to alter the manner affair is arranged 3. Define Kinetic Energy 4. Define Potential energy # 8211 ; energy of place 5. First Law of THERMODYNAMICS? Energy can be transferred or transformed by neer created or destroyed. 6. Explain transferred or transformed? Different sorts of energy a. Radiant ( solar ) B. Chemical ( e.g. gasolene, saccharides, fats ) c. Mechanical ( involves motion ) d. Atomic. 7. Second Law of THERMODYNAMICS # 8211 ; In any energy transmutation or reassign some energy is lost to the environing environment as heat. a. Define Entropy B. 2nd Law says # 8211 ; ENTROPY IS INCREASING c. ADD HEAT LOSS TO ENERGY DIAGRAM ABOVE. B. The Concept of Free Energy 1. Free energy # 8211 ; the part of a systems energy that can execute work given changeless Thymine throughout system ( e.g. , populating cell ) 2. Entire free energy of a system ( G ) is define by this equation G = H # 8211 ; TS a. H = entire energy of system = ENTHALPY b. T = absolute temp in K ( KELVINS ) ( ? C + 273 ) c. S = information d. Note that T increases value of S since as Heat additions, molecular gesture additions, and upset additions. 3. Spontaneous Procedures a.Definition # 8211 ; occur w/o outside aid ( energy ) # 8211 ; energy of system is sufficient to transport out reaction or procedure b.Is non concerned with rate or clip, so self-generated procedures will non needfully happen in a utile clip frame 4. Determining when a system can undergo self-generated alteration a. Stability B. The alteration in Free Energy is negative for self-generated systems. G = Gfinal province # 8211 ; Ginitial province or.DG = DH # 8211 ; TDS III. Basicss of Chemical Reactions A.All reactions require an input of energy to acquire them started 1. Energy OF ACTIVATION or ACTIVATION ENERGY a. Define Activation Energy with operating expense B. For some reactions the activation energy can be provided by the reacting molecules themselves. c. For others, the activation is really high since the reacting molecules must be brought together in precisely the right orientation in order for the reaction to take topographic point ( ? effectual hit? ) .. B.Enzymes cut down activation energy ( Chap5. p. 167-69 ) 1. Define Catalyst 2. Specify Substrate 3. Random interactions lead to Enzyme-Substrate Complex formation ( effectual hit ) 4. Enzymes cut down activation energy by a. Increasing the figure of effectual hits between substrates 5. Enzymes are proteins a. reappraisal construction of proteins. 6. Define Active Site a. Active Site can work by ( 1 ) form similarities ( 2 ) chemical attractive force ( 3 ) both B. Example: Ribonuclease c. Review stairss of RNAse active site d.Another illustration: Lysozyme: pg.170 Figure 5-28 7. Discourse how enzymes are named a. See Table 5-2 p.169 for list of common enzyme group names and functions.. IV. Factors set uping Reactions ( in general, including enzyme-mediated ) ( Back to Chapter 3 ) A. Free energy considerations ( as discussed earlier ) 1. Free energy alteration must be negative B. Concentration of the molecules in the system besides determines whether a reaction will happen. 1. As the concentration of one molecule increases the reaction will travel toward the production of the other molecule ( Le Chatlier # 8217 ; s Principle ) . C. BIG QUESTION # 8211 ; how much of a concentration difference is required to get the better of a.G that might be unfavourable. 1. Rewrite.G to reflect concentration constituent 2. .G = .G O + 0.616ln [ B ] / [ A ] a. 0.616 is a changeless B. .G O is the Standard Free Energy alteration ( 1M @ pH=7 ) in kcal/mole c. @ 37 O C d. Note that when [ A ] = [ B ] , concentration effects are negated and.G=.G O ( ln 1 = 0 ) . D. For a reversible reaction A? ? B ( see Figure. 3-20 p.92 ) 1. One way is energetically favored ( -.G ) over the other 2. For illustration A to B is favored 3. As A converts to B, the concentration consequence of greater sums of B begins to get the better of the + ? ? ? ? ? ? ? G ( for B A ) , to a point where B? ? A is equal to A? ? B. 4. In Table 3-1 some computations were done to find when.G=0 ( equilibrium ) , that is when.G O = -0.616ln [ B ] / [ A ] ( con # 8217 ; t on following page ) . 5. It is of import to observe that it requires important surplus of the favorite merchandise ( B ) to force the reaction back to unfavored merchandise ( A ) . 6. Enzymes do non alter the equilibrium point.. V.Factors Affecting Enzyme-Mediated Chemical reactions A. Physical Parameters impacting Enzyme Activity ( use graphs ) 1. Temperature 2. pH B. Concentration effects 1. Unlimited substrate in the presence of limited enzyme a. Impregnation dynamicss b. where did we see this before -answer: membrane transporters 2. Unlimited enzyme in the presence of limitless substrate. VI. Regulating Enzyme Chemical reactions A. Competitive suppression 1. Chemical reaction rate is [ substrate ] dependant B. Non-competitive suppression 1. reaction rate is [ substrate concentration ] independent 2. Inhibitor binds at a site other than active site 3. causes conformational alteration in enzyme # 8211 ; makes active site unavailable C. Allosteric Control 1. allo = other steric = construction or province 2. Like noncompetitive # 8211 ; Control Molecule binds at surrogate site 3. alternate site = allosteric site 4. Control Molecule called a REGULATORY SUBSTANCE a. may increase or diminish activity. 5. Allosteric enzymes exist in 2 different provinces a. R ( elaxed ) province = high affinity for substrate b. T ( ense ) province = low affinity for substrate 6. Binding of regulative substance can bring on either province. a. Allosteric Inhibitor # 8211 ; adhering causes T province b. Allosteric activator # 8211 ; adhering causes R province. 7. Allosteric enzymes and Reaction rate a. Regulative substances may hold multiple binding sites. Leads to sigmoidal graph of reaction rate B. For T to R province # 8230 ; enzyme activity is low until sufficient regulator binds to change over enzyme wholly to R province c. For R to T province # 8230 ; enzyme activity is high until sufficient regulator binds to change over enzyme wholly to T province d. Regulator may be substrate or merchandise. D. Allosteric Feedback Inhibition 1. end merchandise Acts of the Apostless as regulator of 1st enzyme in tract 2. Discuss Threonine to Isoleucine tract a. enzyme # 1 = threonine deaminase. E. Regulation by Covalent Modification 1. add-ons may include a. Ca 2+ b. PO4 # 8211 ; phosphorylation ( 1 ) Added by protein kinases ( 2 ) Removed by protein phosphotases c. CH3 # 8211 ; methylation d. COCH3 # 8211 ; acetylation 3. binding can up or down modulate enzyme. F. GTP-binding Proteins 1. Binding of GTP or GDP can do major conformational alterations 2. Phosphorylation of bonded GDP and Dephosphorylation of bonded GTP can besides do alterations 3. Mode of action a. Exchange of GTP and GDP b. Dephosphorylation of edge GTP 4. Exchange and phosphorylation can hold different rates a. Control achieved by different rates for different reactions B. See Figure 5-37 pg. 176. G. Ribozymes 1. RNA based accelerators 2. Self splicing RNA molecules c. besides show activity with some proteins ( 1 ) remotion of proteins from ribosomes ( 2 ) separation of aminic acids from transfer RNA. H. Coenzymes 1. vitamins 2. minerals 3. Carriers a. Discuss coupled reaction diagrams b. Electron Carriers ( 1 ) NAD ( Figure 13-8 ) , A ; NADP ( 2 ) FAD ( Figure 4-12 ) ( 3 ) oxidized and reduced signifiers ( 4 ) show chemical science ( 5 ) Dehydrogenase? oxidising enzymes ( 6 ) Reductase # 8211 ; cut downing enzymes c. Function as cofactors in oxidation-reduction reactions d. required by enzymes that are involved in oxidizations or decreases? negatron givers or receiving systems. I. ATP # 8211 ; cosmopolitan energy currency of the cell 1. Describe molecular construction a. nucleoside triphosphate 2. Describe rhythm ATP? ? ADP + P a. .G 0 = -7.3 kcal/mole b. Phosphorylation and its relationship to Redox 3. Energy required to do ATP or Energy released from ATP hydrolysis depends on.G 0 and the comparative concentrations in the cell a. For some cells the ATP/ADP ratio attacks 1000 B. Under these conditions, the.G for the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP can near 11-13 kcal/mole ( retrieve G equation includes a concentration factor ) . J. Coupling Reactions to the Hydrolysis of ATP 1. The hydrolysis of ATP can be linked to reactions with + ? ? ? ? ? ? ? G o Overall reaction: Glu +NH3? ? Gln.G 0 = +3.4kcal/mole Measure 1: Glu + ATP? ? Glu-P + ADP.G 0 = -7.3kcal/mole Measure 2: Glu-P + NH3? ? Gln.G 0 = +3.4kcal/mole NET.G 0 = # 8211 ; 3.9 kcal/mole. 2. Can besides be coupled to Dehydration reactions or about any synthesis reaction that has a + ? ? ? ? ? ? ? G 0 3. If the coveted merchandise has a.G 0 * +7.3 kcal so the reaction is broken down into steps.. K. ATP Production ( Some coverage in Chap 13 p.409 # 8211 ; 410 ) 1. Substrate-level phosphorylation a. Direct enzymatic transportation of phosphate group A ; energy to ADP from a high energy substrate b. low efficiency. 2. Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation? MITCHELL THEORY a. Transportation indirectly through proton gradient ( 1 ) electrochemical gradient ( 2 ) stored charge = ENERGY ( 3 ) high efficiency achieved through step-wise transportation = ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN B. 3 demands for Chemiosimosis ( 1 ) Selectively Permeable membrane ( 2 ) H+ pumping Enzymes ( Active Transport ) ( 3 ) ATP Synthase c.Introduce ATP synthase # 8211 ; enzyme that captures energy from proton gradient and transportations it to ATP production # 8211 ; Figure 13-3 A ; 13-13. c. Discuss charge separation and release of energy ( 1 ) offprint charges across dielectric # 8211 ; Battery Analogy: Figure 13-11 ( 2 ) Make a charge gradient across an dielectric ( 3 ) CHARGE SEPARATION REPRESENTS STORED ENERGY ( 4 ) Release Energy by leting gradient to disperse ( 5 ) In life cells, charge separation achieved with different ion concentrations across membranes ( ION GRADIENTS ) ( 6 ) ex. H+ gradient ( 7 ) Figure 13-15. 3. Jagendorf experiments -a. Knew of being of pH differences within chloroplast B. Review experiment with operating expense c. Experiment shows connexion between H+ gradient, H+ flow, and phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. 4. Latest information on ATP Synthase a. Still unknowns ( 1 ) how it works so fast ( 2 ) how it couples proton flow to ATP production B. Background information on construction ( 1 ) Figure 13-14 ( 2 ) 3 parts ( 3 ) F0 # 8211 ; subunit # 8211 ; channel for protons ( 4 ) F1 # 8211 ; subunit # 8211 ; catalytic fractional monetary unit? ATP production ( a ) called ATPase ( B ) uses ATP to pump protons ( 5 ) Stalk # 8211 ; connects F0 to F1. c. Latest info on construction of F1 ( 1 ) made of 6 fractional monetary units + ? fractional monetary unit ( a ) 3? fractional monetary units ( B ) 3? fractional monetary units ( degree Celsius ) arranged in jumping manner ( vitamin D ) ? fractional monetary unit contains catalytic activity ( vitamin E ) ? subunit extends into chaff part I ) knife shaped protein. d. Current theory of how it works ( 1 ) H+ traveling through F0 causes? fractional monetary unit to revolve ( 2 ) knife border contacts? fractional monetary unit ( 3 ) ? fractional monetary unit is deformed leting for ADP A ; P binding, individually, to active site ( 4 ) ? fractional monetary unit releases contact ( 5 ) ? subunit reformation brings ADP + P in contact and reaction takes topographic point. VII. PHOTOSYNTHESIS ( Chapter 13 # 8211 ; p.430- 438 ) A. Overview # 8211 ; Use? Energy Flow through Populating Systems? OH to set things in position. B. Overall reaction 1. Radiant Energy + H2 O + CO2? ? O2 + Glucose 2. Balanced equation: a. 6CO2 + 6H2 O + Radiant Energy? ? C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 3. Leaf construction a. Epidermis b. Spongy and Palisade Mesophyll ( 1 ) Where photosynthesis takes topographic point c. Stomates. 4. Chloroplast construction? EMPHASIZE ORGANIZATION a. Outer membrane B. Inner membrane c. Stroma # 8211 ; Glucose production enzymes d. Thylakoid membrane ( 1 ) Light absorbing molecules or Photosystems ( 2 ) Electron conveyance chain/Proton pumps ( 3 ) NADP reductase ( 4 ) ATP synthase e. Thylakoid infinite or lms? proton reservoir. C. Photosynthesis as a REDOX 2-step 1. REVIEW STRUCTURE 2. Energy capturing? LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS a. Capture energy in the signifier of ATP and NADPH B. Use negatrons from oxidization of H2O 3. Energy storage? Light INDEPENDENT REACTIONS a. Take energy from ATP and NADPH and utilize it to cut down C dioxide. D. Light Dependent Reactions 1. Happen on thylakoid membrane 2. Discuss electromagnetic spectrum a. Gamma, X, UV, Visible ( 380nm-750nm ) , IR, Micro, Radio b. Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red c. High energy, Short wavelength, High freq # 8212 ; Low, Long, Low. 3. Pigments a. Imbedded in the thylakoid membrane B. All have hydrophobic dress suits anchored in thylakoid membrane c. Chlorophylls ( a A ; B ) ? Mg 2+ Center? Figure 13-30 d. Carotenes # 8211 ; pure hydrocarbons? aromatics rings linked by polyunsat? vitamin D concatenation e. Xanthophylls # 8211 ; as above w/ intoxicants on rings f. Draw soaking up spectrum on board. 4. Light Energy Absorption a. achieved by pigment molecules b. Excitation event A ; excitement energy ( see Figure 13-32 ) ( 1 ) negatrons at land province ( interior orbital ) ? excited? by photon of visible radiation to excited province ( outer orbital ) ( 2 ) can stay in this province for merely a billionth of a 2nd c. Possible destinies of excitement energy ( 1 ) If excited negatron returns to anchor province? FLUORESCENCE + heat ( 2 ) Excited negatron is picked up by stable acceptor molecules. aroused negatron is transferred to stable orbital of the same energy degree ( Figure 13-32 ) ( a ) Light energy converted to chemical energy. ( 3 ) Inductive transference ( a ) energy is transferred to next pigment molecule I ) quiver of aroused vitamin E # 8211 ; sets up electromagnetic field. two ) adjacent vitamin E # 8211 ; in tantamount orbitals begin to vibrate in resonance three ) energy is transferred. ( B ) little or no loss of energy. 5. Capturing and Converting Light Energy to Chemical Energy a. Photosystems ( see Figure 13-31 for general diagram ) ( 1 ) Photosystem I ( a ) 110 chlorophyll a + 16 # 8211 ; bcarotenes = CORE ANTENNA ( B ) Reaction Center = particular chlorophyll a molecule: P700 ( 700 refers to light absorbing belongingss @ 700nm ) ( degree Celsius ) Energy is absorbed by Core Antenna and passed by inductive resonance to P700 so to 1? acceptor. ( 2 ) Photosystem II ( a ) 40 Chlorophyll a + ** B provitamin As = CORE ANTENNA ( B ) Reaction Center = particular chlorophyll a molecule: P680 ( 3 ) Energy is absorbed by Core Antenna and passed by inductive resonance to P680 so to 1? acceptor B. Light Reaping Complexes ( Not shown in Alberts diagrams ) ( 1 ) One associated with each PS ( 2 ) Designated LHC I and LHC II ( 3 ) Collections of pigment molecules imbedded in thylakoid membrane ( 4 ) In close physical propinquity if non physically attached to PS? s ( 5 ) Funnel excitement energy to reaction centres via inductive resonance. USE PHOTO REVIEW HANDOUT W/ EXPLANATION BELOW 6. Non-Cyclic negatron Photophosphorylation ( Figure13-34 = Z Scheme with electron volt evaluations ) a. The participants ( 1 ) Mn -center # 8211 ; Water Oxidizing Enzyme ( 2 ) LHC II A ; PS II ( 3 ) Plastoquinone? e- bearer? aromatic ring w/ long chair hydrocarbon? non attached to PS II ( 4 ) Cytochrome b6 # 8211 ; e- bearer? Heme ( Fe ) incorporating protein Fe2+ ? Fe 3+ ( 5 ) Cytochrome degree Fahrenheit. ( 6 ) PROTON PUMPING IN PS II ( a ) b6+f complex = H+ pump ( B ) Sets up H+ gradient between Stroma and Thylakoid lms ( degree Celsius ) H+ pumped from stroma into lms ( vitamin D ) Flow out through CF0CF1? ATPase imbedded in thylakoid lms. ( vitamin E ) Make ATP in Stroma ( 7 ) Personal computer = e- bearer # 8211 ; plastocyanin? ( a ) Cu incorporating protein: Cu+ ? Cu2+ ( 8 ) negatrons are passed to PS I ( 9 ) Ferrodoxin # 8211 ; Fe/S centre? nomadic # 8211 ; non attached to PS I ( 10 ) NADP+ Reductase? usage negatrons to cut down NADP+ to NADPH. 7. Cyclic Photophosphorylation a. negatrons pass from Ferrodoxin to cytochrome b6 b. merely produces ATP c. may be used to bring forth the extra ATP needed to drive glucose production ( ~3:2 ATP: NADPH ) . E. LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS ( Calvin Cycle ) 1. Occur in stroma 2. Use ATP and NADPH to cut down CO2 to Glucose 3. Review procedure utilizing an operating expense 4. Points to Stress a. Reducing enzyme = Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase ( rubisco ) b. Ribulose bisphosphate = RuBP c. PGA = Phosphoglycerate d. PGAL = Phosphoglyceraldehyde e. Each bend of the rhythm # 8230 ; REFER TO HANDOUT. f. 1 molecule of glucose requires ( 1 ) 18 ATP? 7.3 kcal/mole ten 18 = 131.4 kcal ( 2 ) 12 NADPH? 53 kcal/mole ten 12 = 636 kcal ( a ) Note 53 kcal/mole # 8211 ; ref: Campbell pg. 178 for NADH to O2? H2 O ( 3 ) Takes 767.4 kcal to do 1 molecule of glucose ( 686 kcal ) ( a ) 686/767.4 = 89 % efficiency. F. PHOTORESPIRATION ( Use Study Sheet ) 1. Rubisco prefers O2 to CO2 2. If rubisco binds O2 a. Procedure uses 6 extra ATP b. Regenerates RuBP c. Produces a 2-C compound ( alternatively of 3-C ) d. This compound is sent to peroxisome and chondriosome ( 1 ) converted to Glycerate ( 3C ) ( 2 ) transported back to chloropl ast ( 3 ) Uses ATP to change over to 3-PGAL 3. Net LOSS OF ENERGY 4. Some workss waste every bit much as 50 % of the energy they make on this procedure 5. For workss under ideal conditions? photorespiration poses no jobs 6. Some workss have evolved constructions to cut down photorespiration. G. C4 workss 1. Use spacial ( C4 ) isolation of Rubisco to forestall Photorespiration 2. Fix Carbon into 4-Carbon organic Acids 3. Particulars ( Use Study Sheet ) a. Rubisco sequestered off from O2 in specialised cells? BUNDLE SHEATH CELLS B. Capture CO2 utilizing shuttle molecules c. C4 usage PEP ( phosphoenol pyruvate ) and Pepco ( PEP carboxylase ) to capture CO2 and funnel it into Calvin Cycle. ( 1 ) C4 comes from intermediates ( oxalacetate and malate ) which are 4-C molecules ( 2 ) Other workss called CAM workss. VIII. Oxidative Respiration # 8211 ; Overview A. Review cell organisation and where reactions are taking topographic point B. Emphasize function of ATP made in Photosynthesis IX. Glycolysis # 8211 ; Chapter 4: 110-118 A. Interested merely in the large image ( see Figure 4-3, pg. 111 ) B. Stress 3 major events 1. Energy Investment 2. Cleavage of Glc into 2 3-carbon sugars 3. Energy Generation a. Stored as NADH b. ATP c. FILL OUT ATP SUMMARY TABLE. C. Review Figure 4-3 with pupils 1. If they want to larn the stairss, that? s mulct. 2. Merely be responsible for names in Figure. a. Glucose b. Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate c. Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate ( PGAL ) d. Pyruvate D. Other points to stress 1. No engagement of molecular Oxygen 2. Direct dependance on the handiness of NAD+ a. Use this as a lead into Fermentation. X. Fermentation # 8211 ; Regeneration of NAD+ in the absence of Oxygen A. Discuss what is needed to maintain Glycolysis traveling 1. ADP # 8211 ; no job since cell is utilizing ATP quickly 2. Glucose 3. NAD+ # 8211 ; must happen a manner to oxidise NADH to acquire to ATP bring forthing measure. B. Review 2 Fermentation tracts with study sheet. Eleven. Mitochondrial Events # 8211 ; Oxidation of Pyruvate to CO2 A. Review construction of Mitochondrion B. Transition Reactions # 8211 ; Review with Study Sheet 1. Enzyme # 8211 ; Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex a. 3 enzymes B. 60 polypeptide ironss 2. See Figure 4-8 # 8211 ; p. 118 3. FILL OUT ATP SUMMARY TABLE C. Kreb? s Cycle ( Citric Acid Cycle ) 1. Good overview # 8211 ; Figure 4-11 pg. 120 2. Review with Study Sheet a. Students responsible for names and events. D. Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation # 8211 ; Chap. 13 # 8211 ; p.410 # 8211 ; 429 1. Conversion of stored energy ( NADH A ; FADH2 ) into ATP 2. Stored Energy used to bring forth an a H+ gradient 3. Review with Study Sheets a. Ubiquinone Structure B. Figure 13-20 c. Figure 13-10 # 8211 ; Summary d. Figure 13-21 # 8211 ; Shows Redox potencies 4. Complete ATP SUMMARY TABLE a. Doesn? t take into history ATP used for conveyance out of the Mitochondria d.See Problem 13-5 pg. 420? Outputs are 2.5 and 1.5 ( for NADH and FADH2 and NADHcytosol. Uses 6 of 36 for conveyance. Twelve. The Metabolic Pool A. Use Study Sheet to cover B. See Figure 4-18 p.127 in text for similar but more elaborate intervention. Thirteen. Deoxyribonucleic acid as the GENETIC MATERIAL? A History Lesson ( ref: Bio 120 Outline ) Fourteen. Features of the Genetic Material and the Central Dogma ( ref: Bio 120 Outline ) Fifteen. Deoxyribonucleic acid STRUCTURE A. Discovery 1. James Watson 2. Francis Crick 3. Maurice Wilkins 4. Rosalind Franklin B. Basic construction 1. Sugar phosphate anchor 2. Nitrogen bases as rounds 3. Double spiral 4. Basic Unit = Nucleotide a. phosphate b. sugar c. N base. C. Backbone 1. Deoxyribose sugar 2. Reason for name 3. Review enumeration 4. Where phosphate bonds 5. 5 # 8242 ; to 3 # 8242 ; orientation 6. Antiparallel spiral D. Nitrogen Bases 1. Purines a. Adenine and Guanine 2. Pyrimidines a. Thymine and Cytosine 3. AT brace and GC brace a. Complementary base coupling. E. Chromosomal organisation 1. Aim a. packaging b. organisation c. entree and control 2. Genome size a. E. coli = 4.3 x 106 nucleotide pairs/genome B. Humans = 2 ten 108 nucleotide pairs/chromosome ( 3 x 109 genome ) ( 1 ) stretched out = 6cm. F. Boxing the Eukaryotic Chromosome ( p.250-255 ) 1. Degree 1 ( Figure 8-9 ) a. utilizes proteins called HISTONES b. sum of DNA? ? sum of histones c. really basic ( 1 ) high proportion of positively charged amino acids ( a ) allows for tight binding to negatively charged Deoxyribonucleic acid ( 2 ) lysine and arginine d. DNA + Histone = Chromatin e. Five types of histones ( 1 ) really similar from species to species ( a ) ex. some cow and pea histones differ by 2 aa ) ( 2 ) extremely conserved cistrons. f. DNA + Histone nucleus signifier NUCLEOSOMES ( Figure 8-9 ) ( 1 ) Beadss on a String visual aspect ( 2 ) basic unit of DNA packing ( 3 ) Histone nucleus = 8 # 8220 ; nucleosomal # 8221 ; histone molecules ( a ) nucleosomal histones = H2A, H2B, H3, H4 I ) 2 molecules each compose nucleus ( B ) little proteins ( 102-135 aa ) ( degree Celsius ) Core = HISTONE OCTAMER. 2. Level 2 # 8211 ; 30nm fibre = SOLENOID ( Figure 8-10 ) a. look to be mediated by 5th histone = histone H1 3. Higher degrees of packaging a. refer to overhead of Figure 8-10 b. non clearly understood. 4. Heterochromatin vs. Euchromatin a. hetero = chromosomes in condensed province during interphase b. Eu = chromosomes in less condensed province c. merely euchromatin is actively canned d. may be a harsh signifier of cistron control e. most widely known illustration ( 1 ) Barr Body in females ( a ) one of two X chromosomes is ever in most condensed signifier ( during interphase ) ( B ) Merely cistrons on other chromosome are expressed ( degree Celsius ) females are a Mosaic since different X-chromosomes can be condensed in different cells.. XVI.DNA REPLICATION A. Replication Models 1. Watson-Crick theoretical account implied Semi-Conservative 2. Conservative # 8211 ; possible theoretical account 3. Meselsohn A ; Stahl experiments a. Use 15 N labeled DNA ( 14 N = normal ) B. Basic Stairss 1. Must take into history dual coiling construction 2. Step 1 # 8211 ; separate strands to entree information 3. Step 2 # 8211 ; Make transcripts utilizing old as theoretical account 4. Step 3 # 8211 ; Reform old and new as dual spiral. C. Step 1 # 8211 ; Separating Strands 1. unwind spiral at specific get downing point ( s ) a. ORI = beginnings of reproduction b. DNA HELICASE 2. stabilize unwound spiral so it doesn? t reanneal a. SINGLE STRAND BINDING PROTEINS ( SSB ) 3. prevent supercoiling a. DNA TOPOISOMERASE. D. Step 2 # 8211 ; Making transcripts 1. Use template synthesis 2. Complementary base coupling 3. Necessitate enzyme that can do new DNA polymer. 4. Deoxyribonucleic acid POLYMERASE ( Figure 6-21 A ; 22 ) a. 5 # 8242 ; to 3 # 8242 ; polymerase B. Skiding clinch protein? moderates fond regard of DNA pol to template. c. uses 5 # 8242 ; -nucleotide triphosphates ( ATP, GTP, CTP, TTP ) ( 1 ) supply energy for bond formation d. Review antiparallel construction ( 1 ) requires bidirectional synthesis ( 2 ) Deoxyribonucleic acid pol can merely synthesis unidirectionally ( eg. 5 # 8242 ; to 3 # 8242 ; ) ( 3 ) Synthesis occurs continuously on 3 # 8242 ; to 5 # 8242 ; strand = taking strand ( 4 ) Synthesis occurs discontinuously on 5 # 8242 ; to 3 # 8242 ; strand = lagging strand ( a ) Deoxyribonucleic acid LIGASE connects pieces. e. Requires a primer ( 1 ) de novo synthesis non possible ( 2 ) Primase enzyme lays down RNA primer ( 3 ) Primer must be removed ( a ) see below f. Retroflexing the terminals of dawdling strands ( p.249-250 ) ( 1 ) requires particular enzyme to add dress suits onto templet strand ( a ) dress suits are called # 8211 ; TELOMERES ( 2 ) Enzyme that duplicates them? TELOMERASE ( Figure 8-6 ) ( a ) Contains a short piece of RNA ( B ) in worlds = CCCCAAU ( degree Celsius ) Creates tandem repetitions on terminals of dawdling strand ( GGGGTTA ) ( vitamin D ) allows the terminal of the chromosome to be replicated ( 3 ) leaves a 3 # 8242 ; tail on templet strand. g. Accuracy ( 1 ) 3 # 8242 ; to 5 # 8242 ; exonuclease activity Acts of the Apostless as proofreader ( 2 ) ? senses? mismatch, backs up, removes mismatch, and corrects ( 3 ) methylation of parent strand. Seventeen. DNA REPAIR ( pg. 198-205 ) A. Define Mutation 1. Permanent alteration in DNA codification B. Mismatch Repair system catches mistakes Replication Machinery girls 1. Rpn machinery mistake rate 1 in 10 7 bases transcripts 2. Approximately 10 mistakes/chromosome/rpn rhythm 3. Mismatch = mispaired nucleotide ( Figure 6-25A p.201 ) 4. Mismatch fix enzymes recognize the mismatches a. Excise wrong base B. Repair c. Must be able to acknowledge the freshly synthesized strand ( 1 ) Nick system # 8211 ; new strands have transient dents ( 2 ) Methylation system # 8211 ; Parent is methylated 5. Reduces error rate to 1 in 10 9. C. DNA Damage outside of Rpn 1. Types of Damage ( Figure 6-27 p.202 ) a. Depurination # 8211 ; self-generated loss of A or G ( 1 ) Leaves a depurinated sugar b. Deamination # 8211 ; loss of amine group on Cytosine ( 1 ) Converted to Uracil c. Thymine Dimer formation due to UV visible radiation exposure d. Many other types caused by reactive metabolic byproducts 2. Effectss can do a. Single base brace alterations ( deaminization ) ( Figure 6-29A ) b. Single-base brace omissions ( depurination ) ( Figure 6-29B ) c. Stalled or uncomplete rpn ( thymine dimers ) . D. DNA Repair Mechanism ( Figure 6-30 p204 ) 1. Deletion of Defect a. Requires specialised nucleases for each type of harm 2. Repair a. Uses DNA pol other than rpn DNA pol 3. Ligation a. Uses DNA Ligase. Eighteen. TRANSCRIPTION # 8211 ; ACCESSING THE CODE A. Central Dogma # 8211 ; From DNA to Protein? Figure 7-1 B.Discuss this as the first measure in Gene Expression PROCESSES INVOLVED IN GENE EXPRESSION ? Using Genetic Information to do the molecules necessary for cellular maps. ? Ultimately, every procedure within a life being is controlled by theavailability of specific cistron merchandises C. Definition of a Gene # 8211 ; Stage # 1 1. Region of DNA contains some information that needs to be accessed. D. The Players 1. The information # 8211 ; Deoxyribonucleic acid a. dual spiral B. 5 # 8242 ; to 3 # 8242 ; and 3 # 8242 ; to 5 # 8242 ; strands 2. The enzyme # 8211 ; RNA Polymerase a. 5 # 8242 ; to 3 # 8242 ; polymerase activity b. substrate ( 1 ) ribonucleoside triphosphates c. local unwinding capablenesss d. DNA binding belongingss e. 3 in Eukaryotes ( 1 ) I # 8211 ; rRNA ( 2 ) II # 8211 ; mRNA + others ( 3 ) III # 8211 ; tRNA + rRNA. 3. The courier # 8211 ; messenger RNA a. Structure # 8211 ; Use Figure 7-3 to compare and contrast with Deoxyribonucleic acid ( 1 ) individual strand ( 2 ) U for T ( 3 ) ribose for deoxyribose E. The Basic Steps ( Figure 7-9 ) 1. Find the part to be copied a. which strand b. where to get down 2. Attach enzyme 3. Transcript 4. Stop. F. Finding the part to be copied 1. Which strand a. Discuss sense vs. non-sense ( 1 ) cistron is ever read 5 # 8242 ; to 3 # 8242 ; regardless of which strand its on ( 2 ) templet is ever 3 # 8242 ; to 5 # 8242 ; regardless of which strand its on ( 3 ) Genes on different strands: Fig 7-10 b. upstream vs. downstream ( 1 ) up = toward 5 # 8242 ; ( 2 ) down # 8211 ; toward 3 # 8242 ; 2. Where to Get down a. Promoters # 8211 ; consensus sequences ( 1 ) TATA box: @ ~ -25 ( a ) RNA pol adhering site ( 2 ) CAAT box: @ ~ -80 ( a ) bind regulative proteins ( B ) consequence rate of induction B. More on this when we cover cistron ordinance. G. Attaching the enzyme 1. Transcription factors A ; RNA Pol bind at booster part a. More inside informations when we cover cistron ordinance 2. Transcription Begins H. Elongation 1. Uses anti-sense as templet 2. transcripts in 3 # 8242 ; to 5 # 8242 ; way bring forthing 5 # 8242 ; to 3 # 8242 ; transcript ( messenger RNA ) I. Termination 1. Probably requires expiration factors 2. Specific DNA sequence signals expiration a. in eucaryotes # 8211 ; most common = AATAAA. J. Compare Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Transcripts 1. Use Figure 7-13. K. The Eukayotic mRNA # 8211 ; usage Study Sheet 1. Structure a. Use Figure 7-12 B. 5 # 8242 ; cap ( 1 ) 5 # 8242 ; to 5 # 8242 ; linkage to # 8230 ; ( 2 ) ..GTP ( 3 ) fxn ( a ) in interlingual rendition ( subsequently ) ( B ) conveyance out of karyon I ) pores recognize cap ( degree Celsius ) prevent RNAse debasement c. 5 # 8242 ; UTR ( 10-200 bases ) d. coding sequence e. 3 # 8242 ; UTR ( 1 ) extremely conserved ( 2 ) holes length of UTR and site for 3 # 8242 ; tail fond regard f. 3 # 8242 ; poly A ( 30-200+ ) ( 1 ) likely fxn # 8211 ; stableness ( 2 ) messenger RNA w/o poly A debauched rapidly. 2. Processing # 8211 ; Use Study Sheet a. Intron/Exon construction b. mediated by a group of snRNA? s and proteins c. snRNA + Proteins = snRNP # 8217 ; s d. Several snRNP # 8217 ; s take portion in each splice event e. A composite of working snRNP ; # 8217 ; s is sometimes referred to as a Spliceosome f. Can be cis or trans ( 1 ) Commonwealth of Independent States = linking coding DNAs in same messenger RNA ( 2 ) trans = connectiong coding DNAs from different messenger RNA? s g. Same messenger RNA can be spliced into different cistrons = ALTERNATIVE Splice L. Summarize # 8211 ; Use Figure 7-19. M. Revision of Gene Definition 1. Includes booster and expiration parts 2. Possibly other control sequences XIX.TRANSLATION A. Machinery 1. The codification a. minimal figure to cover all AA = 64 b. degeneration c. Advantage # 8211 ; can absorb some sum of mutant 2. Ribosomes # 8211 ; Use Figure 7-25 a.rRNA # 8211 ; serves to aline ribosome with message and *new evidence* showsit carries out the enzymatic reactionneeded for peptide bond formation ( ref: Science, 11Aug00, p.878 ) . B. Protein # 8211 ; Structural ( Figure 7-26 ) c. Small and big fractional monetary units ( 1 ) little # 8211 ; acknowledgment and alliance ( a ) A A ; P binding sites I ) lower part of these sites two ) involved in adhering transfer RNA to Codon ( messenger RNA ) ( 2 ) big # 8211 ; adhering transfer RNA and doing peptide bond ( a ) peptidyl-transferase activity ( rRNA ) ( B ) GTP hydrolysis activity ( proofreading ) ( degree Celsius ) A A ; P binding sites I ) Major part of these sites two ) binds bulk of transfer RNA with AA attached ( vitamin D ) E ( Exit ) Site. 3. transfer RNA a. transportation RNA b. construction ( 1 ) anticodon part c. Amino Acyl-tRNA synthetase ( 1 ) one for each amino acid ( 20 ) ( 2 ) attach AA to rectify transfer RNA in 2 measure procedure ( a ) AA + ATP AA-AMP + PP ( B ) AA-AMP + tRNA AA-tRNA + AMP ( 3 ) proofreading measure ( a ) truth 1,2 per 40,000 ( B ) done at 2nd measure ( 4 ) merely procedure that ensures the right codon/a.a. coupling. ( 5 ) Active site of enzyme screens Amino Acids based on size. ( a ) Coarse sieve removes AA excessively big for active site. ( B ) Fine sieve removes those little plenty to suit but non rectify ( degree Celsius ) See article: Sieves in Sequence d. Joins 3 # 8242 ; -OH of transfer RNA to carboxyl group of Amino Acid. B. Basic stairss 1. Start # 8211 ; connect message with ribosome a. INTIATION 2. Construct protein a. ELONGATION 3. Termination C. INITIATION # 8211 ; mention to Figure 7-28 1.Binding of little ribosomal fractional monetary unit + instigator transfer RNA ( tRNA met ) + induction factors ( non shown in diagram ) a. Initiator transfer RNA is merely tRNA that can adhere to little fractional monetary unit entirely b. Binds at P site 2. Complex binds to 5 # 8242 ; terminal of messenger RNA a. 5 # 8242 ; cap is critical 3. Complex? scans? mRNA 5 # 8242 ; to 3 # 8242 ; for start codon a. When found, some IFs dissociate to let for subsequent stairss. 4. Large Ribosomal subuint binds? Translation begins D. Elongation 1. assisted by elongation factors 2. EF-tRNANEXT-GTP binds at A site? Use operating expense in binder a. Proofreading measure b. involves GTP hydrolysis c. holds peptide bond formation d. licenses incorrect transfer RNA to spread out of ribosome 3. Peptide Bond Formation # 8211 ; usage operating expense in binder a. Catalyzed by peptidyl transferase b. Aminoacyl ( 3 # 8242 ; -OH # 8211 ; carboxyl ) bond between tRNAP-AAP c. AAP-Carboxyl attaches to AAA-NH2 ( 1 ) transportations concatenation from tRNAP to tRNAA ( 2 ) PEPTIDE BOND FORMATION d. empty tRNAP is released. 4. Small Ribosomal Subunit shifts down one codon ( use Figure 7-27 ) a. TRANSLOCATION B. Shifts transfer RNA attached to nascent concatenation to from A to P site c. Empty transfer RNA displacements to E site -dissociated d. Small subunit displacements back 1 codon to realine with Large fractional monetary unit e. Next transfer RNA binds at A site? procedure continues f. Specific elongation factors ( EF ) have been identified for this procedure 5. A -site is now empty # 8211 ; following transfer RNA binds? rhythm repetitions. E. Termination ( refer to Figure 7-30 ) 1. A-site is occupied by on of the expiration codons 2. Release factor protein binds at A-site 3. Peptidyl transferase hydrolyses last amino-acyl bond 4. New protein is released -Ribosome/ messenger RNA composite dissociates F. Final Gene Definition 1. A part of DNA incorporating the codification for a specific protein or RNA ( e.g. transfer RNA A ; rRNA, snRNA ) plus all the bordering DNA sequences that act as accountants. G. Final Review of Process ( use Figure 7- 33 ) H. READING ASSIGNMENT # 8211 ; PG. 234-240? RNA AND THE ORIGINS OF LIFE